30 January 2026
In Nepal, literacy data by ethnicity has been available since 1991, helping trace the progress in literacy by caste/ethnic (CE) groups over time. Data on literacy and ethnicity is important for a number of reasons. First, it gives an idea of the access to information and knowledge among different caste/ethnic groups and indicates inequalities and disparities in opportunities for social and economic mobility. Second, it also provides pointers to the priority social groups and regions that require specific attention in state policies with respect to literacy, education, and social awareness in general.
Literacy by broad CE groups
There has been considerable improvement in literacy among the different CE groups in the last three decades. However, certain groups have remained at the forefront of progress compared to others. Dalits in general and those of the Tarai in particular have continued to lag behind. In 1991, of the total 59 CE groups recorded, only four caste and two ethnic groups had over 60 per cent literacy. No Dalit group had a literacy rate of over 40 per cent. Of the 10 Dalit groups enumerated, four had less than 20 per cent, and six between 20 and 40 per cent literacy. In 2011, 38 caste, 64 ethnic, and 20 Dalit groups were recorded. Among non-Dalit caste groups, two had above 85 per cent, four above 75 per cent, seven above 65 per cent, and 14 above 50 per cent literacy rates. In the case of ethnic groups, eight had above 75 per cent, 22 above 65 per cent, and 27 above 50 per cent literacy. The progress in literacy rates among ethnic groups was notable, which was partly due to the disaggregation of ethnic groups over the years. The case of Dalits was a little different. Of the 20 Dalit groups, only one had an above 65 per cent literacy rate, five had above 50 per cent, and 14 had less than 50 per cent.
The situation had much improved among caste and ethnic groups in 2021 (Table 1). Of the 21 Dalit groups, three had above 75 per cent, four above 65 per cent, and 11 above 50 per cent literacy. Among non-Dalit caste and ethnic groups, the improvement was more notable. While six non-Dalit caste and ethnic groups each had over 85 per cent literacy, 13 and 35 groups, respectively, had 75–85 per cent, and 18 and 22 had 65–75 per cent. Eleven Dalit groups had graduated to above 50 per cent literacy. With this trend, which in all likelihood will continue in the years to come, one can expect accelerated literacy levels for Dalit groups as well.
Table 1: Literacy Levels of Caste/Ethnic Macro-Groups, 2011–2021
Literacy by geographic origin of caste/ethnic groups
The overall picture of literacy among CE groups becomes more nuanced if viewed from the perspective of geographical regions (Table 2, Figure 1). The hill CE groups had better literacy rates than their counterparts in the Tarai. There was a 13-percentage point difference between hill castes and Tarai castes, and a 24-point one between hill Dalits and Tarai Dalits in 2021. This difference was somewhat lower (6 points) between hill–mountain ethnic groups and Tarai ethnic groups in 2021. The least literate among the major CE groupings in 2021 were the Tarai Dalits (51.9%) followed by the Tarai caste groups (70.1%). But the intercensal increase in literacy among Tarai Dalits and Tarai castes was reassuring.
Table 2: Literacy by Major Caste/Ethnic Groupings, 2011–2021
Between 2011 and 2021, there was a 17-point increase in literacy among Tarai Dalits and a 14-point one among the Tarai castes. There was, however, a great deal of variation among specific CE groups. Among the ethnic groups as well, there was a difference between the hill–mountain ethnic and the Tarai–Inner Tarai ethnic groups, the former having a higher literacy than the latter. But the difference had narrowed between 2011 and 2021.
Figure 1: Literacy by Major Case/Ethnic Groupings, 2011–2021
Literacy among the most numerous CE groups
The 2011 census showed wide variation in literacy among the most numerous CE groups (Table 3). Of the nine CE groups with over a million people in 2011, only two—Bahun and Newa—had literacy rates of over 80 per cent. Chhetri and Magar had literacy rates of 71 and 72 per cent, respectively; Tharu, Kami (now Bishwokarma), and Tamang had rates between 62 and 65 per cent. Yadav, 51.8 per cent, and Muslims, at 43.6 per cent, had the lowest. Among the same number of CE groups with over a million people in 2021, two groups (Bahun and Newa) recorded over 85 per cent literacy; another two (Chhetri and Magar) had 80–85 per cent, and three (Bishwokarma, Tharu, and Tamang), 70–80 per cent literacy. Literacy was the lowest among Muslims (61.6%) and Yadavs (67.1%). Clearly, compared to 2011, there had been notable improvement in literacy among the most numerous CE groups, although four of the nine CE groups with over a million population (Tharu, Tamang, Muslim and Yadav) had literacy levels below the national average of 76.2%.
Table 3. Literacy of Largest Caste/Ethnic Groups (>1% of population)
A notable feature of Table 3 is that between 2011 and 2021, the increase in literacy has been higher among CE groups with relatively low literacy in 2011. Groups with higher literacy rates in 2021 tended to have a smaller increase in literacy over the past decade while groups with lower initial literacy rates had higher gains. CE groups like Koiri/Kushwaha, Chamar/Harijan, Muslim, Kurmi and Yadav had literacy gains above 15 percentage points in the preceding decade.
Most and least literate CE groups
In the last four censuses, the top 10 literate groups have mostly been caste groups—six in 1991, five in 2001, and six again in both 2011 and 2021 (Table 3). Marwadi and Kayastha from the Tarai CE groups consistently ranked among the highest in all the censuses. Also, among the top 10 were two ethnic groups in 1991, four in 2001, 2011, and 2021. Newa and Thakali have ranked consistently among the top 10 in all censuses. Hill Bahuns and Tarai Brahmins, respectively, ranked 5th and 4th in 1991, 6th and 8th in 2001, 4th and 5th in 2011, and 6th and 7th in 2021.
Table 4: Comparative Ranking of Top 10 Caste/Ethnic Groups by Literacy Levels, 1991–2021
The bottom 10 CE groups in literacy levels have invariably been dominated by Tarai Dalits (Table 4). In 1991, five among the least literate were Tarai Dalits (Musahar, Dusadh, Chamar, Khatwe, and Dhobi), six in 2001 (Musahar, Dom, Khatwe, Chamar, and Bantar/Sardar), five in 2011 (Dom, Musahar, Natuwa, Dusadh, and Khatwe), and six again in 2021 (Musahar, Dom, Natuwa, Khatik, Halkhor, and Dusadh). Some improvements notwithstanding, Musahar (35.8% in 2021) and Dom (38.4%) were the least literate groups in all censuses. In 2021, two mountain ethnic groups (Chumba and Dolpo), and one each from the Tarai castes (Bin) and the Tarai ethnics (Pattharkatta) were among the 10 least literate. Most noteworthy was the fact that four groups among the least literate (Dusadh, Pattharkatta, Halkhor, and Khatik) had just over 50 per cent literacy rates, which was a considerable improvement compared to 2011.
Table 5: Comparative Ranking of Bottom 10 Caste/Ethnic Groups by Literacy Levels, 1991–2021
The overall picture that emerges is that despite accelerated improvements in literacy across caste/ethnic groups in Nepal in the last decade, there is an unmistakable association between ethnicity and literacy levels: the more socially and economically deprived and disadvantaged the caste/ethnic group, the relatively lower the literacy rates. Also, the disadvantaged CE groups of the Tarai (Tarai Dalits, Muslims) and females in general have literacy rates much lower than their counterparts in the hills. Of concern is also the fact that of the nine CE groups with above a million population, four have literacy rates below the national average, and six among the ten least literate groups have literacy rates below 50 per cent. Although the intercensal rise in literacy among these groups is encouraging, it may primarily reflect gains among younger males, excluding females and most adults beyond school age.
These conclusions have clear policy implications. Even recognising that Nepal’s literacy data needs to be interpreted with caution as it relies on self-reported ability to read and write in any language, the focus on literacy has to target specific ethnic groups with lower literacy rates. School enrolment among these groups has to be improved. Adult literacy has to be accompanied by efforts at social mobilisation aimed at raising social consciousness regarding female education in general and female literacy in particular.
